History of Ornithopters and Helicopters

Ornithopter and creator George R. White at Saint Augustine - Photo: Wikimedia

One of the first designed or at least imagined flying machines was the ornithopter.   In essence, when mankind gazed at the skies, he saw that the birds were flying and thus mankind realized if he wanted to have the domain of the skies, he would have to fly like a bird.   Thus since the dawn of the civilization, mankind with, its quest for dominion over nature, has tried to repeat the design and the behavior of the natural flying species.  Besides the mankind’s formal history, the legends go back far describing the mankind’s quest for flying.

The first reference to an ornithopter and a real reference to flying is in the legend of Daedalus and Icarus.  When Icarus was held captive by the Gods on top of a mountain fortress, he used big wings tethered to his body by wax.  However because he flew too close to the sun, according to the legend his wings melted away from his body and he plunged into the deep abyss of death.  Although it is a tragic myth, it symbolizes the quest for the man’s attempt to fly and thus control the forces of nature.

As mankind advanced further and further, throughout history there were lots of trials and designs for flying machines.    In order to establish flying, mankind looked at the only available example of flying: namely the birds.  Thus, everyone was trying to copy the designs of the birds to design a flying machine that paralleled their development: The Ornithopter.  In essence, an ornithopter was a machine that had birdlike wings and a place for the operator to be attached.  The operator would flap his arms and the wings of the ornithopter would be flapped also.  In essence, mankind would fly by simulating the flapping of the bird’s wings.  However, since the principles of aerodynamics were not discovered, no one was aware of the ratio of the wing to muscle power and thus all of these projects and attempts were doomed to fail.

Perhaps the most serious thoughts came from the famous thinker and designer Leonardo Da Vinci.  He drew many representations of the birds to correctly understand the principle.  Thus, as a result, he designed may ornithopters design and a helicopter design which was a vehicle that can take off vertically from a ground y the use of blades that are horizontal to the ground.  In fact, it can be said that an ornithopter is the father of helicopters.

During the history of mankind, there were hundreds of ornithopter and even helicopter designs which never had a chance of flying off the ground.  Especially the 19th century was filled with many inventors competing for the design of the successful ornithopter. In fact, even the great inventor Thomas Edison tinkered with an ornithopter ad even received a patent. (although the design was not feasible and thus it never got off the ground)  When it was realized that the power to flap the wings was just not enough in humans, new designs were introduced that utilized mechanical energy for flying.   In 1870, the French inventor Gustave Trouve designed an ornithopter that received its power to flap wings from an internal combustion engine.  The flight was a partial success as the ornithopter that he designed flew 70 meters off the ground.

The final result was that although people tried to fly ornithopters, it just wasn’t a viable aerodynamic design.  Although in the 20th century some successful ornithopters were built, it was discontinued as an idea.  Then the power to flight was concentrated on a glided flight (not flapped wings flight) and thus the Wright Brothers were able to fly creating a huge industry in the 20th century.  However, the efforts of the Ornithopter were not in vain, as it was in principle the founding stone of the helicopter.

---

---

The Indian Chess Chaturanga

Photo: Wikimedia

Chess, as well all know, is a recreational and competitive sport played between two players.

Nowadays, it is sometimes referred to as international chess or Western chess, which is actually used to distinguish it from its predecessors and other variants. More so, chess is one of the world’s most popular games, played by millions of people in clubs, online, tournaments and informally.

However, where did chess actually began? Who were the first people ever to invent this intellectual sport and what was its original purpose? The chess game was thought to have originated in India or Afghanistan before 600 A.D. However, there are several and unverified claims stating that the game existed as

early as 100 A.D.

The Chaturanga

The chess game has been attributed to the Indians by both the Arabs and the Persian people. However, the main origin of the sport has been lost in antiquity. Chess in Old Persian and Arabic are "chatrang" and "shatranj" respectively. Both of these terms are derived from the Sanskrit word "Chaturanga". Literally, the word Chaturanga means the army of four divisions, constituting the cavalry, infantry, elephant, and chariots, which are now being respectively represented by the knight, pawn, bishop, and rook.

Aside from chess, Chaturanga is also presumed to be the common origin of the Japanese shogi, the Thai makruk, the Chinese xiangqi, and the Korean janggi. The game was played since the early 6th century or probably earlier, hence it is believed to be the most common and oldest version of chess.

As previously mentioned, Chaturanga consists of the cavalry, chariots, elephants, and infantry, which reflects the four divisions of the army in ancient India. These are additional units besides the king and his general or counselor in the center. The Infantry is represented by the line of advancing pawns. Located near the center of the army are war elephants. The horse, with a flanking horse move, is represented by the mounted cavalry and the chariots or ships, which move hastily and in a linear fashion.

Chaturanga was originally played in an eight-by-eight un-checkered board, also known as the Ashtapada. Additionally, the board has markers that have meanings

still unknown today. However, it is known that these special markers are not related to Chaturanga and were rather drawn only by tradition. Murray, a renowned chess historian, speculated that the board was also used for other dice-type games, in which the markers it contains had meanings.

The Rules of Chaturanga

The exact rules of Chaturanga are yet to be known. However, several chess historians believe that the game has the similar rules to Shatranj, which is its direct descendant. By using the rules of Shatranj, the movements of the Chaturanga pieces can be mapped out.

The Raja or King moves like the King in modern chess. The Senapati or General, also known as the Mantri or Counselor, moves diagonally, occupying only a single square. Like the Rook in modern chess, the Ratha or Chariot moves on straight lines either horizontally or vertically.

As for the Gaja or Elephant, there are three possible moves that the piece makes, such as two squares diagonally, one square diagonally or forward, two squares orthogonally. 

The Horse of Ashva moves like the Knight. Foot soldiers or the Pedati or Bhata are similar to the pawns of modern chess.

---

---

Can a Hobby of Collecting Turn Profitable?

Photo: Flickr

Each year in the United States, hundreds of thousands of Americans take steps to collect items that they have an interest in.  It is also important to mention that collecting is a hobby that is not only enjoyed by those in the United States but those all around the world!  Popular items collected include anime characters, sci-fi collectibles, stamps, and coins.  Although collecting is a hobby that many wish to enjoy, many are curious as to what the rearwards are for doing so.

What is nice about collecting, whether it be sci-fi or anime collectibles, is the options that you have.  For starters, it is important to focus on exactly why collectors collect.  Many collectors are considered pure hobbyists.  These are individuals who collect for the sole purpose of personal fulfillment.  For example, a hobbyist who collects movies, books, figures, and other items surrounding sci-fi, is likely a sci-fi buff.  This means that they have an interest in science fiction in general, whether it be films, movies, or a combination of both.

Despite the fact that a large number of collectors do so simply for the sake of enjoyment, there are many other collectors who choose to do so for the sole purpose of making a profit.  For example, a sci-fi collector who collects for a profit often spends a great deal of time researching hard to find sci-fi collectibles, as well as those that are valuable.  This is because these types of collectors are investors.  They are investing their money to purchase sci-fi collectibles, with the hopes of one day selling their collection for a profit.

As nice as it is to hear that there are collectors who collect for the sole purpose of making money, many beginners wonder if they really can make a profit.  Of course, it possible to make a profit with anime or sci-fi collectibles, or really anything for that matter.  With that in mind, it is often easier said than done.  As previously stated, many collectors, who are also known as investors, spend a great deal of time researching and examining collectibles in their particular field of interest.  This is the best approach to make money with collectibles, whether those collectibles be sci-fi, anime, coins, or stamps.

In addition to researching values and needs, collectors are also urged to familiarize themselves with proper care.  To make money on collectibles, including sci-fi collectibles and anime collectibles, all items should be in new or like-new conditions.  Anything else will decrease in value and possibly significantly.  For that reason, many professional collectors, especially those who collect anime or sci-fi, are encouraged to leave all items as is.  This means leaving all figurines or plush characters in the box.  The same can be said for movies, puzzles, and books.  If they must be taken out, a display case is often advised.

As touched on above, there are thousands of collectors in the United States and many of those collectors choose to collect different items.  Sci-fi and anime collectibles were given as examples multiple times above.  With that in mind, it is important to remember that you do have other options.  One of the best ways to develop a collection of valuable collectibles, which can later be sold for a profit, is to choose a topic, issue, or hobby that you enjoy.  For example, if you regularly find yourself tuning into the Sci-Fi channel to watch their science fiction movies or television shows, sci-fi collectibles may be best for you.

---

---

Commercial Aviation from the 1920’s-1930

Qantas Ltd. No. 16 aeroplane - Photo: Wikimedia

The start of scheduled passenger services in the United States was not known, according to Roger Bilstein an aviation historian.  Passengers were transported by Silas Christofferson via hydroplane from San Francisco to Oakland harbors in 1913.  A Benoist flying boat successfully flew passengers from Tampa to St. Petersburg, Florida in 1914.

Lawson C-2 was the first multiengine airplane designed for commercial air travel.  Alfred W. Lawson built it in 1919.  Since there are cheaper military airplanes available the Lawson C-2 did not become successful.  Lawson built another model called L-4; this can carry 34 passengers and about 6,000 pounds of mail.  It crashed on its test flight and discouraged the development of large planes.

Inglis Uppercu a Florida entrepreneur began scheduled international passenger flights in 1920, initially from Key West, Florida to Havana, Cuba.  Soon other routes were added such as, between Miami and the Bahamas, between New York and Havana.  There is also a Midwest, between Cleveland, Ohio, and Detroit, Michigan.  His company was named “Aeromarine airways” it has 15 flying boats and made 2,000+ flights with 10,000 passengers.  A plane crash killing four people made Aeromarine Airways lose business in 1924.

The birth of U.S. commercial air transportation and United Airlines was when Walter T.  Varney began contract airmail services from Pasco, Washington, and Elko, Nevada, through Boise, Idaho.  

Seven years after the first official airmail flight, 1925, U.S. Post Office airplanes sent 14 million letters, packages a year.   Airmail was very popular with bankers and businessmen.

It was in 1926 when the Air Commerce Act was implemented, this authorized the Secretary of Commerce to plan air routes, build up air navigation systems, test and license pilots and aircraft, and investigate accidents.  The carriers were then obliged by law to base pay to the weight of mail.  This all started with the appointment of Dwight Morrow to develop a national aviation policy.  

In the 1920s, Harry Guggenheim a multimillionaire and aviation enthusiast started a foundation, which aims at teaching aeronautical engineers and developing flight instruments.  He gave funding to the Western Air Express to check if airlines can live on passenger fares alone, but the company barely made enough money without airmail.

Investments in aviation stocks significantly rose between 1927 and 1929.  This was brought about by Charles A. Lindbergh’s solo flight to Paris.

Travelers could cross the country faster by train than by air at the end of the 1920s.  It was not comfortable to travel by plane because of the un-insulated thin sheets of metal that made noise in the wind.  The cabins were not pressurized.  In spite of this, airline passengers in the U.S. grew in number from 6,000 to 173,000 in the span of 1926 to 1929.  The majority were businessmen.

U.S.  Airlines’ planes have enough capacity for 15 passengers.  The fuselage has a corrugated design and the plane depends on a Ford Trimotor 5-AT. 

In the 1920s, manufacturers transferred near airports.  There were aeronautical schools that taught airplane engineering, design, and operation.  New technologies were being developed that gave the potential for commercial aviation expansion.

Harry Guggenheim set up a full flight laboratory, which developed very helpful navigational tools like the barometer, artificial horizon and gyroscope and radio direction beacon for landing.  In September 1929 James Doolittle a U.S. army lieutenant benefited from these tools when he had to land the plane without his vision.

Huge progress as it may seem still did not make passenger travel exclusive airlines profitable up to the 1930’s.

---

---

Garage floor remodeling

Garage Space - Photo: Pixabay

The garage is a very important part of your house. It is not only the room where you keep your car but it can be used also as a storeroom. In the garage, you keep things that you do not use every day or things that you want to dispose of later on. 

Sporting equipment is usually stored in your garage. Also, a lot of people use the garage as a laundry, a workshop or even as a home office. The growing importance of the garage has increased the number of remodeled garages through the past years. Garages are becoming an integral part of the house. 

One of the things that need to be changed when planning to remodel your garage is the floor. Concrete floors serve the purpose of flooring but do not look good, even if you paint it, the floor will look bare. It is best to have a garage expert adviser to do the job. 

The best type of garage floor is made of specially formulated polyvinyl, this special material for flooring conceals cracks and protects the floor from getting stained. This flooring protects the floor from accidental spills: oil, battery acid, grease and any other dirt that gets into your garage. By making a few minor changes to your garage you can transform it into an attractive storage room.

---

---

RUNNING Indoors has its advantages

Treadmill - Photo: Pixabay

Treadmills have many advantages over real running and walking. Sure, you don’t get to go outdoors in nature, but you can also avoid bad weather and all the other hazards that come with going out of your houses, such as cars and passers-by. It’s much more relaxing to not have to keep your mind and one eye on the potential problems, and just concentrate on your running.

Apart from that, though, there are many more serious benefits. The ground remains at the same level for the whole run, which avoids you having to constantly adjust the way you’re running – you can build up a pace and then keep going. Also, the run is always at the speed you’re most comfortable with, and you can change it whenever you like. If you do want to run uphill, though, you can simulate that too, by adjusting the gradient of the machine.

Another advantage is in all the statistics you can collect about your running: because the machine is setting the pace of the run, it can calculate all sorts of things automatically, such as the amount of energy (calories) you have burned. You can also hook yourself to various monitors – heart rate monitors, breathing monitors, and so on – to check all the different aspects of your health when you run.

One of the best things about running indoors is that you don’t have to be bored while you’re doing it – you can watch TV or read a book while you’re using it. Even though it can be quite relaxing, though, treadmills are still a more effective form of exercise than some complex cardiovascular exercises. Faced with a choice between getting into all sorts of strange positions and contorting my body into odd shapes or just running on a treadmill, I know which one I’d choose.

---

---

Basic FIRE PREVENTION

Photo: Pixabay

According to the estimates of USFA in the year 2004 alone the number of fires that took place in the United States was 1.5 million. The estimated loss in dollars stood at a staggering 9.8 billion dollars. More horrific figures reveal loss of the death of about 3,900 approximately and about 18,000 injuries the same year. The USFA also said that during the same year the fatalities due to fires surpassed fatalities due to all sources combined. 

And the USFA also adds that even this number could be small in actuality as many small fires are not reported. The statistics also reveal that more than eighty-three percent of all fatalities and eighty percent of the total injuries due to fires took place in homes. These figures come as a bitter surprise as most of the fires are pretty much preventable if adequate precautions are taken. Following certain basic fire safety guidelines could greatly reduce the chances of fires and protect the homes and people from this disaster from striking. 

One of the best ways to prevent home fires is to install smoke detectors on every floor of the home and also fire alarms. But, installing the smoke detectors alone would not serve the purpose. Some people think that “once installed forever installed” after installing smoke detectors. But, the fact is many a time the smoke detectors don’t work and do not detect smoke due to mere negligence on behalf of the house owner. The smoke detectors batteries should be tested and checked on a regular basis and in fact, the smoke detector should also be tested in whole. Make it a point to replace the battery every year. Do not smoke at home. It is one of the biggest causes of home fires. 

The next big cause is an electrical short circuit. Use properly rated wires for house wiring and so does other components. Also when plugging in electrical gadgets check the voltage rating to avoid short circuits. Also, keep cords at a distance from rugs and carpet. Disconnect any appliance when done using. Replace old appliances or fix them before they become an electrical fire hazard. Also, use circuit breakers in the house wiring and also for plugging outlets to prevent fires due to overloading. 

In recent years a lot of fires have been experienced due to electrical heaters to supplement home heating. Care should be taken to keep portable heaters at a distance from combustible materials to prevent fires. Also, go for heaters that have auto shutoff in case of overloading or overheating. 

Fireplaces are also one of the biggest fire hazards in houses with fireplaces. Use screens to prevent fire spark from flying off to the outside of the fireplace. Keep combustible material at a distance from the fireplace to prevent them from catching fire. Also, do not overload the fireplace with excessive wood, which may cause a sudden outburst of fire within a few seconds and unexpectedly. Clean the chimneys periodically to help smoke escape freely into the air and also to clean bird nests which can catch fire. 

Have an escape plan ready for the home. It is a good idea to be also prepared for a fire. Practicing an escape from time to time also increases response during the times of actual fire. Have a plan for every room in the house. 

Educating the house inmates especially children would make evacuation plan easier in the event of an emergency. Children are especially fascinated by fires and like to create fires, about a hundred thousand fires a year are started by children while playing. 

People have a negligent attitude towards fire safety, especially during the holidays. They relax every rule just for fun and end up paying a huge price for that. Care should be taken even while selecting a Christmas tree, see that it’s not too big so as to make it difficult to manage and which can catch fire easily. Decorations which are non-flammable in nature should be used to decorate homes. 

---

---