Our Neighbors in Space

Crab Nebula - Photo: Wikipedia

We have a special feeling toward the other planets that circle our sun.  Maybe it’s all the science fiction stories about visiting the moon, Mars and other planets.  But we love to think about those planets that make up what we call “the solar system.” that do what our planet does but do it very differently indeed.  

The planets of our solar system have taken on personalities and mythical appeal in our literature and arts.  It is easy to find artists who render their vision of the planets that make up our society of planets near our sun.  The names of the planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are all from our cultural past being gods from Greek and Roman mythology.  But the solar system is not just made up of these planets.  The solar system is a very busy place indeed.

In 2006, there was quite a bit of controversy as scholars and astronomers agreed to downgrade Pluto and remove its status as a planet.  So you have to wonder, what is it that makes something a planet and what happened to Pluto?  It didn’t just go away so it must still be out there.  A planet, by scientific definition, is any object in orbit around a sun, that has formed into some kind of round object is a planet as long as it has cleared away any other orbiting items around it.  By cleared away, that doesn’t mean it has destroyed all space debris etc.  For example, our planet has not “cleared away” the moon but it has captured it into its own orbit so we classify as a planet.  That’s a relief huh?

There are many objects floating around in our solar system other than the planets we know of.  It’s an interesting piece of trivia that in addition to the planets there are 165 moons orbiting around those nine planets.  Some of those moons are so advanced that some scientists have suspected that they might have supported life at some point.

In addition to the regular planets and moons, there are dwarf planets, asteroid belts and routine visits by comets that create a lot of traffic in our cosmic corner of the universe.  The two known dwarf planets that exist on the outer rim of our solar system are Eries and Ceres.  So when Pluto’s status was changed to be removed from the list of planets, it simply joined those two bodies as dwarf planets but still a solid citizen of the community of celestial bodies around our sun.

In addition to these larger bodies, there is an asteroid belt that exists between Mars and Jupiter that most of the asteroids that we see in our night sky come from.  There is another belt of large objects further out called the Kuiper belt as well as a “bubble” in space called a heliopause and there is a suspected additional belt outside the known solar system called the Oort belt that we think is the origin of a lot of large asteroids and comets that frequent our solar system and come to orbit our sun.

As fascinating as these many celestial bodies who are our neighbors in space is the origin of our solar system.  We have to break it down into simple terms to understand the terms but we know that the early history of the solar system and the universe was one of the great bodies of gas and clouds of matter eventually cooling and heating, exploding and spinning off stars and other massive space giants that became more stars, galaxies and solar systems.  It was from this erratic activity that our sun separated from the gasses and carried with it the material that became our solar system.  The gravity of the sun captured sufficient matter that it began to go through the process of forming, cooling, exploding and separating.  This is what happened as the planets all went through the same process eventually establishing stable orbits and small objects falling into orbit around them.

When you think of how powerful and out of control this process is, it’s amazing to step back and see the beauty of the organization of our solar system today.  The more detail you learn about the history of our solar system, the more you will enjoy your explorations of the planets with your telescope.  That discovery is part of the fun of astronomy.

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Myths of the American Civil War

Civil War Balle Scene - Photo: Wikimedia

The Civil War (1861-5) has spawned numerous myths and falsities.

The Republicans did not intend to abolish slavery - just to "contain" it, i.e., limit it to the 15 states where it had already existed. Most of the Democrats accepted this solution. 

This led to a schism in the Democratic party. The "fire-eaters" left it and established their own pro-secession political organization. Growing constituencies in the south - such as urban immigrants and mountain farmers - opposed slavery as a form of unfair competition. Less than one-quarter of southern families owned slaves in 1861. Slave-based, mainly cotton raising, enterprises, was so profitable that slave prices almost doubled in the 1850s. This rendered slaves - as well as land - out of the reach of everyone but the wealthiest citizens.

Cotton represented three-fifths of all United States exports in 1860. Southerners, dependent on industrial imports as they were, supported free trade. Northerners were vehement trade protectionists. The federal government derived most of its income from customs duties. Income tax and corporate profit tax were yet to be invented.

The states seceded one by one, following secession conventions and state-wide votes. The Confederacy (Confederate States of America) was born only later. Not all the constituents of the Confederacy seceded at once. Seven - the "core" - seceded between December 20, 1860, and February 1, 1861. They were: South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. 

Another four - Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas - joined them only after the attack on Fort Sumter in April 1861. Two - Kentucky and Missouri - seceded but were controlled by the Union's army throughout the war. Maryland and Delaware were slave states but did not succeed. 

President James Buchanan who preceded Abraham Lincoln made clear that the federal government would not use force to prevent secession. Secession was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court only in 1869 (in Texas vs. White) - four years after the Civil War ended. New England almost seceded in 1812, during the Anglo-American conflict, in order to protect its trade with Britain.

The constitution of the Confederacy prohibited African slave trade (buying slaves from Africa), though it allowed interstate trade in slaves. The first Confederate capital was in Montgomery, Alabama - not in Richmond, Virginia. The term of office of the Confederate president - Jefferson Davis was the first elected - was six years, not four as was the case in the Union.

Fort Sumter was not the first attack of the Confederacy on the Union. It was preceded by attacks on 11 forts and military installations on Confederate territory. 

Lincoln won only 40 percent of the popular vote in 1860. Hence the South's fierce resistance to his abolitionist agenda. In 1864, the Republicans became so unpopular, they had to change their name to the Union Party. Lincoln's vice-president, Johnson, actually was a Democrat and hailed from Tennessee, a seceding state.

He was the only senator from a seceded state to remain in the Senate. 

Reconstruction started long before the war ended, in Union-occupied Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Slave tax was an important source of state revenue in the South (up to 60 percent in South Carolina). Emancipation led to near bankruptcy.

The Union states of Connecticut, Minnesota, and Wisconsin refused to pass constitutional amendments to confer suffrage on black males. The Union army consigned black labor gangs to work on the plantations of loyal Southerners and forcibly separated the black workers from their families.

Contrary to myth, nearly two-thirds of black families were headed by both parents. Slave marriages were legally meaningless in the antebellum South, though. But nearly 90 percent of slave households remained intact till death or forced separation. The average age of childbirth for women was 20.

Segregation was initiated by blacks. The freedmen lobbied hard and long for separate black churches and educational facilities. Nor was lynching confined to blacks. For instance, a white mob lynched, in September 1862, forty-four Union supporters in Gainesville, Texas. Similar events took place in Shelton Laurel, North Carolina. The Ku Klux Klan was the paramilitary arm of the Democratic party in the South, though never officially endorsed by it. It was used to "discipline" the workforce in the plantations - but also targeted Republicans.

The Democrats changed their name after the war to the Conservative Party. By 1877 they have regained power in all formerly Confederate states.

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Various Tools Used For WOOD WORKING

Woodworking Tools - Photo: Pixabay

Woodworking is a laborious job; this is because the activities as processing wood, cutting, fitting, etc, are involved in woodworking. Therefore it is important to use right woodworking tools which help to reduce the required labor and make woodworking much more convenient.

The woodworking tools are simple woodworking supplies as a hammer, saw, etc, which are small and operated manually. However, apart from woodworking tools woodworking machines also are available for facilitating your projects. 

The difference between woodworking machines and woodworking tools is that woodworking tools are simple, small, and cheap. As they are small, they are usually portable and have to be operated by holding them in hands. They are used for simple woodworking operations jobs as cutting, fitting different pieces of wood in order to make any type of wood workpiece. On the other hand, the woodworking machines are large and are usually costly. They are used for the activities as the processing of wood and even creating new wooden artistic objects.

There are several woodworking tools used these days. The most commonly used among them is a saw. There are different types of saws such as Japanese saws, dovetail saws, cross cut saws, Tenon saws, bow saws, chainsaws, etc. They are used for cutting. However, before cutting the wood, it is to be marked with woodworking tools such as markers and majoring tools. 

The tools for measuring tapes, squares, rules, etc are required for measuring and the woodworking tools as marking gauges, knives awls, play a very crucial part in marking marks before cutting. Marking is very crucial part of woodworking. This is where the skills of the woodworkers come into the picture.

Then the third most common woodworking tools are hammers. The hammers are required to fix nails with which the different pieces of wood are fixed together to make the workpiece. Apart from nails, screws also are commonly used for fixing the different parts of the workpiece.  For using screws, we first need to drill holes in the wood. The drilling machines are the tools for this purpose.

Then the next important categories of woodworking tools are the chisels, scrapers and carving tools. They are required for a number of small activities involved in woodworking. 

The finishing of the wood workpieces also is an important part of woodworking. There are some woodworking tools used for finishing also. The wood planes are used for smoothening and regularizing the surface. Scrappers and polishers as sandpapers, steel wool, and other abrasives also are useful for smoothening of the surface.

For additional support for fixing the different parts, the workpiece together wax or adhesives are applied along with the nails and screws. The workpiece is also generally colored polished with varnishes, colors etc. therefore the woodworking tools like brushes or sprayers also are required.

These are only among some of the common woodworking tools that every woodworker should have. All the above-mentioned tools are cheap and therefore even the non-commercial woodworker too may have them in his collection of woodworking tools. 

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Mystery TRAINS

Photo: Wikimedia

Trains have a very exciting feeling that comes with them. If you enjoy solving mysteries then you may find a mystery train is a fun way to spend your time. You can make reservations with a group of your friends or you can go alone and meet new people who share your same interests. Mystery trains generally operate at night so that you can spend your time in an atmosphere that fits well with the scenario being played out.

Many of us remember the popular board game of Clue where you had to guess who committed the murder, what room it was conducted in, and with what weapon. Many of the mystery trains are set up with a similar type of layout taking place. Some mystery train games only last for the evening while others may last for two or three days. It all depends on how much time you want to invest in this fun activity.

Some of these mystery trains take place is places you would love to visit including the Rocky Mountains, Alaska, and even New York. If you aren’t interested in helping to solve the crime but you would like to see it take place, you can find mystery trains that offer a fantastic dinner. The murder mystery is performed while you enjoy your food by actors up on the stage. Sometimes they ask for audience participation to help keep everyone interested but it depends on the particular production you are taking part in.

In order to get the best prices on mystery trains, look for those that run all year long. This means that many of the local people will have already had a chance to take part in it. It also means not everyone will be fighting for the same tickets on set days. You will generally find mystery trains are less expensive during the week than on weekends. Those that offer a fine dining experience are going to cost more too because of the atmosphere and the food offered. 

Since there are so many different types of mystery trains out there it is important that you get all of the information in advance. Find out what will be taking place and what your role in it will be. Ask how long the actual mystery takes to unfold so you can plan in advance for it. If the mystery train is several days long find out about the meals and the sleeping quarters. The more information you have the more likely it is that you will thoroughly enjoy your mystery train experience.

Taking a train adventure to enjoy a great mystery that you take part in solving can be a wonderful vacation. The internet is a great place to find the various mystery trains that are offered as well as there locations. These types of events get wonderful reviews and the mystery trains fill up fast. You will want to plan your trip and secure reservations early in order to ensure you can attend the one you want. 

A mystery train can be a great way for a group of adults to spend a couple of days together. It also makes a wonderful birthday or Christmas gift for a friend or family member who is always watching those movies on TV where they solve the crimes. This is one gift that they would always remember. 

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Another Look at INDIANS (Native Americans, Amerindians)

Native American chiefs in 1865 - Photo: Wikimedia

Native Americans are often cast in the role of victims of White aggression and unbridled avarice-driven or gratuitous violence, especially in the territories known collectively today as the United States. But the first massacre was perpetrated by Indians in the British colony Jamestown, in Virginia in 1622. They slaughtered 347 white men, women and children on that occasion.  

Europeans are also accused of importing pathogens, disease-causing agents, such as smallpox and measles, malaria and yellow fever. Indigenous people had no immunological resistance to these illnesses as they were never exposed to them.

But recent findings by a team of anthropologists, economists, and paleopathologists who have completed a massive study of the health of people living in the Western Hemisphere in the last 7,000 years - suggest that Native American's health was severely run down long before the Europeans delivered the coup de grace.

The researchers analyzed more than 12,500 skeletons - half of them pre-Columbian - from 65 sites in North and South America for evidence of infections, malnutrition, and other health problems.

 The study - "The Backbone of History: Health and Nutrition in the Western Hemisphere", edited by Dr. Richard H. Steckel and Dr. Jerome C. Rose - discovered that the haleness of Native-Americans declined markedly in the 1000 years before Columbus "discovered" them. 

The vast majority of the skeletons showed telltale signs of advanced degenerative joint disease, deteriorating dental health, stature, anemia, arrested tissue development, infections and trauma from injuries. These were attributed by the participants to limited diets and urban congestion. People became shorter and died earlier - on average at age 35 - as the centuries passed.

"Pre-Columbian populations were among the healthiest and the least healthy in our sample," Dr. Steckel and Dr. Rose said. "While pre-Columbian natives may have lived in a disease environment substantially different from that in other parts of the globe, the original inhabitants also brought with them, or evolved with, enough pathogens to create chronic conditions of ill health under conditions of systematic agriculture and urban living."

Moreover, there are signs that diseases hitherto thought to have been introduced by the white explorers were actually indigenous.1,000-year-old Peruvian mummies, for instance, were found to have been infected with tuberculosis in their lungs.

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What Is The Best Historical Destination For A MEXICO Vacation?

Ruins of Palenque - Photo: Wikimedia

When you think about history and Mexico there are a few locales that come to mind. The one that really stands out is the area of the Yucatan peninsula that encompasses the area once dominated by the Mayan people and where you can still find incredible evidence of their advanced civilization. Just a short drive from the high-octane resort towns of Cancun and Cozumel are examples to be found of the height of Mayan architecture and civilization.

Many travel providers can set you up with tours that will let you enjoy and explore several archeological sites and still put aside time to lounge on a beach to soak in the sun. This gives you the opportunity to have an educational experience as well as a relaxing vacation. Spend a few days traveling to several of the most well-known ruins and then kick back with some typical water activities.

The most famous Mayan ruins are at Chichen Itza, which is close to Merida, the capital of Yucatan. It is estimated Chichen Itza was established in 432 AD and is one of the finest examples of Mayan architecture ever excavated. You can climb the pyramid known as "El Castillo" and learn how it is set up to have significance in how the Mayans viewed astronomy. There is also the largest ball court in Mesoamerica located here, which hosted games where the losers may have been ritually sacrificed. The blend of science, religion, and architecture in the city can be very impressive.

Another more recently found site is at Palenque, in which in 1952 the mummified remains of Lord Pakal, a ruler during the sixth century, were found in a large sarcophagus. There are many exquisite examples of Mayan architecture located here, such as comb-like decorations on the roofs of the temples and intricately carved wall panels. There are over 200 buildings at this site, which are probably more than enough to keep you exploring most of the day. 

A visit to Tulum can provide some seaside ruins to explore for a half a day or so, but it also gives you the opportunity to snorkel and check out some of the underwater caves that are near there. After that, it is a short trip to either Cancun or Isla de Mujeres for some rest and relaxation so you can reflect on all the history you absorbed. And the margaritas are good there, too.  

Just south of Tulum you will find Sian Ka'an, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This ecological reserve has a lion's share of natural beauty, but it also highlights 23 archeological sites of Mayan civilization and contains an ancient trade route that serviced the cities of Tulum and Muyil during the Mayan era. 

The entire Yucatan peninsula is chock full of the history and architecture of the Mayan civilization and it gives us a glimpse of what life was like in the prehistory of European colonization of the Americas. If your idea of a great vacation to Mexico is to learn about its history and heritage, then this is the number one place to go. 

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Basic Principles Of Theory Of EVOLUTION

Photo: Wikimedia

Evolution theory teaches that survival is for the fittest living organism.

What is life? What is fit? And what does it mean to survive?

Well, there are many definitions of course. A useful definition, in a scientific perspective, is the one that allows us to analyze myriads things with fewest principles. So here they are.

A living organism is a class of objects that share 3 traits.

1. Reproduce. A living organism can make copies.

2. Inherit. Living organism, in the process of reproducing, will inherit traits to the offspring.

3. Mutate. Living organism, in the process of inheriting, will make small mistakes.

That seems like a reasonable definition. If we look most living things around us, like dogs, cats, pigs, birds, Fido, virus, etc., they all share those traits.

However, based on those definitions, God is not alive, while computer virus, religious doctrines, ideologies, and ideas are alive.

I don’t think God will mind though. It’s just a definition.

The practical aspect is that we can use evolution theory to explain the sort of humans, cats, dogs, germs, doctrines, ideologies, and ideas that are common nowadays.

Different living organism performs those 3 traits differently. Those living organism that reproduces a lot becomes plenty. Those that reproduced a lot, become common.

That’s the basic of evolution theory.

For example, we see that peacocks tend to have long elaborated tails. From this, we can guess peacocks with long elaborate tail must have made more peachicks. Perhaps, peahen love peacocks with long elaborate tails. It’s true.

Suppose it were true. Then peacocks with longer tails will mate with more peahens. Those happy couples will then produce more peachicks.

Male peachicks will inherit long tails. Female peachicks will inherit preferences for the long tail. So, peahens like peacocks with a long tail.

It looks like a circular argument. It is. The truth is we don’t really know for sure, at least just from the reasoning, why peacocks have a long tail.

However, we do know that traits that lead to gene pool survival through sexual selection tend to be positive feedback.

Those are traits that either enhance gene pool survival through regular means or signal capability to survive on the females. Samples of the former are Cheetah’s speed and men’s wealth. Samples of the latter are peacock’s tail and sports cars.

The more peacocks have a longer tail, the more peacocks in the future will have even longer tails. The more peahens in the future will get turned on by long tail even more.

Now, most males are poor. Does that mean women like the poor? Does being poor serve gene pool survival?

The answer to the first question is no. The answer to the second is, well, sort of due to various unnatural sex laws against consensual sex. It’s tricky.

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